A Few Notes on Astronomical Instruments in the Yuan Dynasty
During the Yuan period, the Astronomical Bureau 司天監 produced one of the most important premodern systems for making Chinese calendars and predicting celestial events. Those reforms also included instruments. The list of instruments recorded in the History of the Yuan is probably the most famous of the sources on these instruments, because several of the instruments were brought from the “Western regions”, and they were recorded with their Persian and Arabic transliterations.
Western Instruments in the History of the Yuan
The History of the Yuan (Yuanshi 元史) records an important list of diagrams/new instruments that were submitted by Jamal al-din to Qubilai in 1267. These instruments have inspired numerous comments regarding their origins and type. (Note: Check out the bibliography for more. For the Yuanshi, I am drawing on the modern edited version, j. 48, pp 998-999)
It’s an interesting list. Each instrument begins with a transliteration of the original name into Chinese followed by a Chinese gloss translation.
List of instruments
咱禿哈剌吉 (Pinyin: za-tu-ha-la-ji)
Chinese Gloss: 混天儀
Translation: Instrument for the Spherical Heaven (i.e. armillary sphere)
咱禿朔八台 (Pinyin: za-tu-shuo-ba-tai)
Chinese Gloss: 測驗周天星曜之器
Translation: Instrument for measuring the stars and planets of the whole heavens (van Denno + Yabuuti, read as “measuring the stars of the celestial vault”)
魯哈麻亦渺凹只 (Pinyin: lu-ha-ma-yi-miao-wa-zhi)
Chinese Gloss: 春秋分晷影堂
Translation: Building of Shadow Lengths of the Vernal and Autumnal Equinox
魯哈麻亦木思塔餘 (Pinyin: lu-ha-ma-yi-mu-si-ta-yu)
Chinese Gloss: 冬夏至晷影堂
Translation: Building of the Shadow Lengths of the Winter and Summer Solstice
苦來亦撒麻 (Pinyin: ku-lai-yi-sa-ma)
Chinese Gloss: 渾天圖
Translation: Illustration of the Spherical Heaven (i.e. celestial globe)
苦來亦阿兒子 (Pinyin: ku-lai-yi-a-er-zi)
Chinese Gloss: 地理志
Translation: Record of Geographical Features (i.e. terrestrial globe)
兀速都兒剌不 (Pinyin: wu-su-du-er-la-bu)
Chinese Gloss: 晝夜時刻之器
Translation: Instrument for Finding Time in the Day and Night (i.e. astrolabe)
Following the translations, there is also a description about the instrument. The descriptions are especially helpful in identifying the instruments.
List of Descriptions
Instrument 1
Yuanshi: 其制以銅為之，平設單環，刻周天度，畫十二辰位，以準地面。側立雙環而結於平環之子午，半入地下，以分天度。內第二雙環，亦刻周天度，而參差相交，以結于側雙環，去地平三十六度以為南北極，可以旋轉，以象天運為日行之道。內第三、第四環，皆結於第二環，又去南北極二十四度，亦可以運轉。凡可運三環，各對綴銅方釘，皆有竅以代衡簫之仰窺焉。
Translation: It’s made out of copper/bronze. It has a single horizon ring upon which is carved the celestial degrees and the positions of the twelve earthly branches (i.e. zodiac). It is made parallel to the earth’s surface. The side is set up with a double-ring that is attached to the horizon at the line of zi-wu (direct north-south line). Half of the double-ring extends to the ground, and it is divided into celestial degrees. Inside the double ring is another double ring. It too is carved with the celestial degrees, but it meets at a different side. It is attached to the side of the first double ring, and it takes 36 degrees from the ground as its distance from the northern and southern poles. It can be rotated around the poles. The ring tracks the path of the sun (i.e. the ecliptic). Inside it are rings three and four. They are both attached to ring two. They take their northern and southern pole measurement to be 24 degrees. They also rotate around the poles. All three rings can be moved. They each have a pair of copper/bronze squares screwed that all have holes where one can lift it and make observations using a straight bamboo tube. (My translation is literal. See also Yoichi, 70-71; Tasaka 94)
Instrument 2
Yuanshi: 外周圓牆，而東面啟門，中有小臺，立銅表高七尺五寸，上設機軸，懸銅尺，長五尺五寸，復加窺測之簫二，其長如之，下置橫尺，刻度數其上，以準掛尺。下本開圖之遠近，可以左右轉而周窺，可以高低舉而徧測。
Translation: The exterior is a bordered circle, and there is a door on the eastern side. In the center is a small platform upon which stands a copper/bronze gnomon of a height of 7 chi and 5 cun. On the gnomon is set up a shaft of a copper ruler hanging in length 5 chi 5 cun. Additionally, there are two tubes of the same length as the ruler attached for making observations and verifications . Below that is fixed a straight ruler which has measurements engraved on it. It is made parallel to the ruler. The distance of the map which is placed beneath the rulers can be adjusted side-to-side for observation around the entire circle. It can be raised and lowered for one to make observations of any side. (See also, Tasaka 96)
Instrument 3
Yuanshi: 為屋二間，脊開東西橫罅，以斜通日晷。中有臺，隨晷影南高北下，上仰置銅半環，刻天度一百八十，以準地，上之半天，斜倚銳首銅尺，長六尺，闊一寸六分，上結半環之中，下加半環之上，可以往來窺運，側望漏屋晷影，驗度數，以定春秋二分。
Translation: [The hall] is two-room sizes in space with a hole in the back on the west and east to direct the sun’s shadow at an inclined angle. In the center is a platform which follows the sunlight. The south side is higher than the north. Above it is placed a copper/bronze semicircle which is engraved with 180 celestial degrees. It is parallel with the earth’s horizon [My reading is slightly different than the modern punctuation in the Yuanshi 999. I think these phrases should be separate]. The upper semi-circle supports an inclined copper ruler at the head, with the ruler being 6 chi in length and 1 cun and 6 fen in width. The upper half is attached to the half ring at the center. The lower part is added on the half ring. One can move forward and backward for observations. At the same time as viewing the shadows of the room one can look at the clepsydra to check the measurements so as to fix the times of the vernal and autumnal equinoxes. (See also Tasaka, 85-86).
Instrument 4
Yuanshi: 為屋五間，屋下為坎，深二丈二尺，脊開南北一罅，以直通日晷。隨罅立壁，附壁懸銅尺，長一丈六寸。壁仰畫天度半規，其尺亦可往來規運，直望漏屋晷影，以定冬夏二至。
Translation: [The hall] is five-room sizes in space. Beneath the room is a hole whose depth is 2 zhang 2 chi. It has a hole in the back on the north and east to make the sunlight a straight line. Following the hole there is an upright wall from which hangs a copper/bronze ruler, whose length is 1 zhang 6 cun. The wall contains a half compass with the celestial degrees as if looking upward. The ruler can be moved forward and back along the compass. One can view a clepsydra and see the sun’s shadow to fix the times of the winter and summer solstice. (See also Tasaka 86)
Instrument 5
Yuanshi: 其制以銅為丸，斜刻日道交環度數于其腹，刻二十八宿形於其上。外平置銅單環，刻周天度數，列于十二辰位以準地。而側立單環二，一結于平環之子午，以銅丁象南北極，一結于平環之卯酉，皆刻天度。即渾天儀而不可運轉窺測者也。
Translation: It is manufactured out of copper/bronze as a ball. The sun’s path is carved in slanted lines and meets the circular measurements on its exterior. The 28 asterisms are carved on it. Outside of it, there is a flat single ring added to it, upon which are carved all the numbers of the celestial degrees. It lays out the positions of the twelve earthly branches, and it is level with the earth. But on the sides there are two single rings set up. The first is attached to the horizon ring’s north-south line with a copper mark for the northern and southern pole. The second is attached to the mao-you lines (east-west). They both have celestial degrees engraved on them. It is like an armillary sphere, but it cannot be moved for observation and verification. (See also Tasaka 84)
Instrument 6
Yuanshi: 其制以木為圓毬，七分為水，其色綠，三分為土地，其色白。畫江河湖海，脈絡貫串於其中。畫作小方井，以計幅圓之廣袤、道里之遠近。
Translation: It is manufactured out of wood and made into a round sphere. Seven parts represent water, and it is blue. Three parts represent the earth, and it is white. Rivers, streams, lakes, and seas are painted on it. The channels and paths come together in its center. The painting has small squares like the character 井. They are meant to calculate the width for pieces of a circle and the distance for miles. (See also Tasaka 81)
Instrument 7
Yuanshi: 其制以銅如圓鏡而可掛，面刻十二辰位、晝夜時刻，上加銅條綴其中，可以圓轉。銅條兩端，各屈其首為二竅以對望，晝則視日影，夜則窺星辰，以定時刻，以測休咎。背嵌鏡片，三面刻其圖凡七，以辨東西南北日影長短之不同、星辰向背之有異，故各異其圖，以畫天地之變焉。
Translation: It is manufactured out of copper/bronze like a circular mirror. It can be hung. The face is covered with the twelve earthly branches, and the hours of morning and night. There is a copper/bronze piece attached for viewing in the center on it, and it can be rotated in a circle. The metal piece has two extremes. They are both bent at the head in two splits facing each other. In the day, one uses the sun’s shadow; in the night, one views the stars to find the time and to measure good and bad fortune. On the back side there is an inlaid flat mirror. The three faces divide the diagram into seven, to fix the four directions, the differences in the lengthening and shortening of the sun’s shadow, and the differences of the star’s progression. Consequently, all of these differences have their diagram to draw the transformations of heaven and earth. (See also Tasaka 97)
Comments on the List
We can draw a few conclusions from the transliterations and the descriptions. The transliterations of the instruments are related to the Persian and Arabic terms for common astronomical instruments. But there are debates about the terms, especially instruments 3 and 4.
Transcriptions
Instrument 1
Hartner: dhatu al-halaq
Tasaka: Adatu falaki
Revised (Miyajima): Zāt al-Ḥalaq
Contemporary Translation: armillary sphere
Instrument 2
Hartner: dhatu 'sh-sh'ubatai(ni)
Tasaka: Adatu sawabiti
Revised (Miyajima): Zāt al-Shu‘batayn
Contemporary Translation: triquetrum (also known as Parallactic rulers)
Instrument 3
Hartner: rukhama-i-mu'awwaj
Tasaka: rukhama-i-muwazi
Revised (Miyajima): ruxāmah-i mustawī
Contemporary Translation: see below
Instrument 4
Hartner: rukhama-i-mustawi
Tasaka: rukhama-i-mustawi
Revised (Miyajima): ruxāmah-i mustadīr
Contemporary Translation: see below
Instrument 5
Hartner: kura-i-sama
Tasaka: kurah-i sama
Revised (Miyajima): kurah-i samā’
Contemporary Translation: celestial globe
Instrument 6
Hartner: kura-i-ard
Tasaka: kurah-i arz
Revised (Miyajima): Kurah-i Arḍ
Contemporary Translation: terrestrial globe
Instrument 7
Hartner: asturlab
Tasaka: Usturlab
Revised (Miyajima): Usṭurlāb
Contemporary Translation: astrolabe
For five of the instruments (namely 1, 2, 5, 6, and 7) scholars largely agree on which instruments were intended. These were common instruments in Islamic observatories, but some were new for Chinese audiences. For example, the triquetrum or the parallactic rulers were first described by Ptolemy, but this instrument was not used in Chinese astronomy. The celestial globe had a Chinese counterpart in three dimensional models of the celestial sphere, but the terrestrial globe was new. Similarly, the astrolabe was a new instrument introduced at the time.
Instruments 3 and 4 are particularly challenging to decipher however. The instruments appear to be a dialing instrument. Focusing on the possible source terms, Hartner argued that the two sundials were examples of equal (the length of the hours do not vary by season) and unequal hour (changing hours by season) sundials. This would refer to the type of hour lines constructed on the face of the dial. He suggested that this was a problem of the transcription, and that the names for the dials had been switched.
Another interpretation of the set-up suggests that they were horizontal and vertical sundials (Tasaka thought that perhaps they were vertical and horizontal, but he also admitted that his interpretation was preliminary, 90).
Miyajama offered a compelling interpretation that instrument 3 is more like an equatorial ring than a sundial. And that instrument 4 was probably a type of mural quadrant. This argument is based on several relevant points. First, the fact that the instruments are called “gui” does not necessarily mean that they are based on gnomons. In fact, the description makes it clear that the instruments used slits with sunlight. Miyajama points out that when gnomon is used in the Yuanshi it is almost always biao instead. Furthermore, the related observatories at Maragha and Jaipur also have instruments for measuring the sun’s altitude. They are similar in design, and so this is a compelling interpretation.
However, building on the instruments, Isahaya Yoichi has most recently argued that the instruments were not connected to the Maragha observatory as was previously thought. Instead, he has suggested that the instruments may have been connected to Alamut, a center of Nizari Ismailis. Using a new source called the Dastūr al-munajjimīn [Manual of Astrologers], Isahaya has shown that a set of astronomical instruments were preserved from Alamut. Moreover, the latitude of Alamut is close to 36 degrees. Since the armillary sphere uses the 36 degrees, Isahaya suggests that the history of these Western Instruments in China may be connected to this earlier observatory.
Although I do not have much to add in terms of the origin story, I do think that there is an interesting comparison worth making to the rest of the instruments added by Guo Shoujing. I will discuss this further in another post. But I will end here to say that at least one of the newly-designed instruments uses a pinhole instead of a stick gnomon. If we accept that Guo Shoujing built some of the new instruments based on the models from the Islamic Astronomical Bureau, this might be another way to think about the design. This is perhaps an additional point in favor of Miyajama’s interpretation that the instruments described in 3 and 4 were not necessarily time-telling tools used for measuring hours but were rather instruments for measuring solar altitude.
Bibliography
Alexander Wylie, The Mongol Astronomical Instruments in Peking, Chinese Researches, 1-28
Willy Hartner, The Astronomical Instruments of Cha-ma-lu-ting, Their Identification, and Their Relations to the Instruments of the Observatory of Marāgha, Isis, Vol. 41, No. 2, 1950: 184-194
Yabuuti, Kiyoshi [Yabuuchi Kiyoshi] (translated and partially revised by Benno van Dalen) 1997. ‘Islamic Astronomy in China during the Yuan and Ming Dynasties.’ Historia Scientiarum 7: 11–43
Tasaka (Tazaka), Kodo. "An Aspect of Islam Culture Introduced into China." Memoir of the Research Department of the Toyo Bunko, no. 16 (1957): 75-160
Thomas Allsen, “Astronomy”, in Culture and Conquest in Mongol Eurasia
Miyajima Kazuhiko 宮島一彦 1982. ‘Genshi tenmon-shi kisai no Isuramu tenmonkiki ni tsuite 『元史』天文志記載のイスラム天文儀器について [New Identification of Islamic Astronomical Instruments Described in the Yuan Dynastic History].’ In: Tōyō no kagaku to gijutsu 東洋の科学と技術. Kyoto: Dōhōsha, 407–427.
Prazniak, Poxann 2018. ‘Marāgha Observatory: A Star in the Constellation of Eurasian Scientifi c Translation.’ In: Patrick Manning and Abigail Owen (eds.) Knowledge in Translation: Global Patterns of Scientifi c Exchange, 1000–1800 CE. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 227–243.
Mozaffari, Mohammad and Georg Zotti 2013. ‘The Observational Instruments at the Maragha Observatory after AD 1300.’ Suhayl 12: 45–179.
Isahaya Yoichi, From Alamut to Dadu: Jamāl al-Dīn’s Armillary Sphere on the Mongol Silk Roads, Acta Orientalia Hungaria, 74, 2021, No 1, 65–78
Yang, Qiao 2017. ‘From the West to the East, from the Sky to the Earth: A Biography of Jamāl al-Dīn.’ Asiatische Studien / Études Asiatiques 71/4: 1231–1245.